The Metabolism

By the end of the course, the student will;

Define the structures of nucleotides which function in the metabolisms of carbohydrates, lipis, proteins.

Explain the factors affecting the enzymatic reactions,

Describe the types of inhibitors of enzymatic reactions,

Classify the regulatory enzymes,

List the enzymes according to their sequence order in the respiratory chain,

Explain the function of each enzyme in the respiratory chain,

List the enzymes involved in removal or ROS

Classify the enzymes according to the international system,

Define the reaction mechanisms of oxidoreductases, hydrolases, transferases,

Give one example for each enzyme class of oxidoreductases, hydrolases, transferases,

Define the reaction mechanisms of lyases, isomerases, ligases,

Give one example for each enzyme class of lyases, isomerases, ligases

Describe ATP production by substrate level phosphorylation

Calculate the energy release by aerobic and anaerobic glycolysis,

Explain the cycles related to gluconeogenesis,

Explain the mechanisms of action of the enzymes which regulate gluconeogenesis

Explain glycogenolysis step by step,

List the main differences between liver and muscle glycogen,

Describe the regulation of glycogenolysis and glycogenesis by regulatory enzymes.

Explain the interconnection between pentose phosphate pathway and reduction reactions,

Explain the relation between pentose phosphate pathway with antioxidant system of Glutathione

Calculate the energy gain by β-­‐oxidation of fatty acids,

List the differences between β-­‐oxidation of even-­‐number carbon fatty acids, odd-­‐ number carbon fatty acids and branched chain fatty acids

Explain the syntheses of ketone bodies,

List the conditions for the ketone bodies to be used as fuel in extrahepatic tissues.

Describe the properties of the enzymes involved in the catabolism of amino acids,

Classify the amino acids according to their degradation products,

Explain the urea cycle,

Explain the connection between urea cycle and citric acid cycle

Distinguish between fertilization age and menstrual (gestational) age.

Bilaminar Embryo to Implantation

List the usual sites of implantation; list the more common ectopic implantation sites.

Describe the process of implantation including the differentiation of the trophoblast into cytotrophoblast and syncytiotrophoblast and the decidual reaction in the surrounding maternal tissue.

Summarize the changes that occur within the conceptus and surrounding maternal tissuesduring the week after implantation is initiated.

Describe the components of the bilaminar embryonic disc at the end of the second week ofdevelopment. List the sources of these two layers.

Describe the role of human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) in the maintenance of pregnancy.

List the two areas in the embryonic disc that remain free of mesoderm.

Describe the regional differences that appear within the embryonic mesoderm during the third week of development.

Describe the source of the somites, and list the major derivatives of these structures.

 List the major derivatives of the three primary embryonic germ layers.

Outline the main features of neurulation.

Describe the sequence of events involved in the formation of the neural tube and neural crest.

List the derivatives of neural crest cells.

Describe briefly the role of the head fold, tail fold, and lateral body folds a) in converting the flat trilaminar embryonic disc into a C-­‐shaped cylindrical embryo, b) in establishing the gut, and c) in narrowing the umbilical ring.

Define the three subdivisions of the decidua (basalis, capsularis, and parietalis) that become distinguishable after implantation is completed.

Describe the differentiation of the chorionic sac into the villous chorion and smooth chorion.

List the functions of amniotic fluid.

Describe the origin of monozygotic and dizygotic twins.

Describe all possible relationships of amnion, chorion, and placenta for monozygotic and dizygotic twins.

Distinguish compact bone in histological sections

Recognize connective tissue proper subtypes.

Draw a labeled diagram of hyaline, elastic, fibrous cartilage and endochondral ossification.

Describe the light microscopic appearance of nerves in the nervous system.

Describe the link between the anatomical characteristics of bones and joints of the lower and upper limbs

Describe the anatomical features of the blood vessel of the head and neck